The first release of Java in 1996 generated an incredible amount of excitement, not just in the computer press, but in mainstream media such as the New York Times, the Washington Post, and BusinessWeek. Java has the distinction of being the first and only programming language that had a ten-minute story on National Public Radio. A $100,000,000 venture capital fund was set up solely for products using a specific computer language. I hope you will enjoy a brief history of Java that you will find in this website.
1. Java as a Programming Platform
“As a computer language, Java’s hype is overdone: Java is certainly a good programming language. There is no doubt that it is one of the better languages available to serious programmers. We think it could potentially have been a great programming language, but it is probably too late for that. Once a language is out in the field, the ugly reality of compatibility with existing code sets in.”
Our editor got a lot of flack for this paragraph from someone very high up at Sun Microsystems, the company that originally developed Java. The Java language has a lot of nice features that we will examine in detail later in this chapter. It has its share of warts, and some of the newer additions to the language are not as elegant as the original features because of compatibility requirements.
But, as we already said in the first edition, Java was never just a language. There are lots of programming languages out there, but few of them make much of a splash. Java is a whole platform, with a huge library, containing lots of reusable code, and an execution environment that provides services such as security, portability across operating systems, and automatic garbage collection.
As a programmer, you will want a language with a pleasant syntax and comprehensible semantics (i.e., not C++). Java fits the bill, as do dozens of other fine languages. Some languages give you portability, garbage collection, and the like, but they don’t have much of a library, forcing you to roll your own if you want fancy graphics or networking or database access. Well, Java has everything—a good language, a high-quality execution environment, and a vast library. That combination is what makes Java an irresistible proposition to so many programmers.
2. The Java “White Paper” Buzzwords
The authors of Java wrote an influential white paper that explains their design goals and accomplishments. They also published a shorter overview that is organized along the following 11 buzzwords:
2.1. Simple
We wanted to build a system that could be programmed easily without a lot of esoteric training and which leveraged today’s standard practice. So even though we found that C++ was unsuitable, we designed Java as closely to C++ as possible in order to make the system more comprehensible. Java omits many rarely used, poorly understood, confusing features of C++ that, in our experience, bring more grief than benefit.
The syntax for Java is, indeed, a cleaned-up version of C++ syntax. There is no need for header files, pointer arithmetic (or even a pointer syntax), structures, unions, operator overloading, virtual base classes, and so on. (See the C++ notes interspersed throughout the text for more on the differences between Java and C++.) The designers did not, however, attempt to fix all of the clumsy features of C++. For example, the syntax of the switch statement is unchanged in Java. If you know C++, you will find the transition to the Java syntax easy.
At the time Java was released, C++ was actually not the most commonly used programming language. Many developers used Visual Basic and its drag-and- drop programming environment. These developers did not find Java simple. It took several years for Java development environments to catch up. Nowadays, Java development environments are far ahead of those for most other programming languages.
Another aspect of being simple is being small. One of the goals of Java is to enable the construction of software that can run stand-alone on small machines. The size of the basic interpreter and class support is about 40K; the basic standard libraries and thread support (essentially a self-contained microkernel) add another 175K.
This was a great achievement at the time. Of course, the library has since grown to huge proportions. There is now a separate Java Micro Edition with a smaller library, suitable for embedded devices.
2.2. Object-Oriented
Simply stated, object-oriented design is a programming technique that focuses on the data—objects—and on the interfaces to those objects. To make an analogy with carpentry, an “object-oriented” carpenter would be mostly concerned with the chair he is building, and secondarily with the tools used to make it; a “nonobject-oriented” carpenter would think primarily of his tools. The object-oriented facilities of Java are essentially those of C++.
Object orientation was pretty well established when Java was developed. The object-oriented features of Java are comparable to those of C++. The major difference between Java and C++ lies in multiple inheritance, which Java has replaced with a simpler concept of interfaces. Java has a richer capacity for runtime introspection (discussed in Chapter 5) than C++.
2.3. Distributed
Java has an extensive library of routines for coping with TCP/IP protocols like HTTP and FTP. Java applications can open and access objects across the Net via URLs with the same ease as when accessing a local file system.
Nowadays, one takes this for granted—but in 1995, connecting to a web server from a C++ or Visual Basic program was a major undertaking.
2.4. Robust
Java is intended for writing programs that must be reliable in a variety of ways. Java puts a lot of emphasis on early checking for possible problems, later dynamic (runtime) checking, and eliminating situations that are error-prone. . . . The single biggest difference between Java and C/C++ is that Java has a pointer model that eliminates the possibility of overwriting memory and corrupting data.
The Java compiler detects many problems that in other languages would show up only at runtime. As for the second point, anyone who has spent hours chasing memory corruption caused by a pointer bug will be very happy with this aspect of Java.
2.5. Secure
Java is intended to be used in networked/distributed environments. Toward that end, a lot of emphasis has been placed on security. Java enables the construction of virus-free, tamper-free systems.
From the beginning, Java was designed to make certain kinds of attacks impossible, among them:
- Overrunning the runtime stack—a common attack of worms and viruses
- Corrupting memory outside its own process space
- Reading or writing files without permission
Originally, the Java attitude towards downloaded code was “Bring it on!” Untrusted code was executed in a sandbox environment where it could not impact the host system. Users were assured that nothing bad could happen because Java code, no matter where it came from, could never escape from the sandbox.
However, the security model of Java is complex. Not long after the first version of the Java Development Kit was shipped, a group of security experts at Princeton University found subtle bugs that allowed untrusted code to attack the host system.
Initially, security bugs were fixed quickly. Unfortunately, over time, hackers got quite good at spotting subtle flaws in the implementation of the security architecture. Sun, and then Oracle, had a tough time keeping up with bug fixes.
After a number of high-profile attacks, browser vendors and Oracle became increasingly cautious. Java browser plug-ins no longer trust remote code unless it is digitally signed and users have agreed to its execution.
2.6. Architecture-Neutral
The compiler generates an architecture-neutral object file format. The compiled code is executable on many processors, given the presence of the Java runtime system. The Java compiler does this by generating bytecode instructions which have nothing to do with a particular computer architecture. Rather, they are designed to be both easy to interpret on any machine and easy to translate into native machine code on the fly.
Generating code for a “virtual machine” was not a new idea at the time. Programming languages such as Lisp, Smalltalk, and Pascal had employed this technique for many years.
Of course, interpreting virtual machine instructions is slower than running machine instructions at full speed. However, virtual machines have the option of translating the most frequently executed bytecode sequences into machine code—a process called just-in-time compilation.
Java’s virtual machine has another advantage. It increases security because it can check the behavior of instruction sequences.
2.7. Portable
Unlike C and C++, there are no “implementation-dependent” aspects of the specification. The sizes of the primitive data types are specified, as is the behavior of arithmetic on them.
For example, an int in Java is always a 32-bit integer. In C/C++, int can mean a 16-bit integer, a 32-bit integer, or any other size that the compiler vendor likes. The only restriction is that the int type must have at least as many bytes as a short int and cannot have more bytes than a tong int. Having a fixed size for number types eliminates a major porting headache. Binary data is stored and transmitted in a fixed format, eliminating confusion about byte ordering. Strings are saved in a standard Unicode format.
The libraries that are a part of the system define portable interfaces. For example, there is an abstract Window class and implementations of it for UNIX, Windows, and the Macintosh.
The example of a Window class was perhaps poorly chosen. As anyone who has ever tried knows, it is an effort of heroic proportions to implement a user interface that looks good on Windows, the Macintosh, and ten flavors of UNIX. Java 1.0 made the heroic effort, delivering a simple toolkit that provided common user interface elements on a number of platforms. Unfortunately, the result was a library that, with a lot of work, could give barely acceptable results on different systems. That initial user interface toolkit has since been replaced, and replaced again, and portability across platforms remains an issue.
However, for everything that isn’t related to user interfaces, the Java libraries do a great job of letting you work in a platform-independent manner. You can work with files, regular expressions, XML, dates and times, databases, network connections, threads, and so on, without worrying about the underlying operating system. Not only are your programs portable, but the Java APIs are often of higher quality than the native ones.
2,8. Interpreted
The Java interpreter can execute Java bytecodes directly on any machine to which the interpreter has been ported. Since linking is a more incremental and lightweight process, the development process can be much more rapid and exploratory.
This was a real stretch. Anyone who has used Lisp, Smalltalk, Visual Basic, Python, R, or Scala knows what a “rapid and exploratory” development process is. You try out something, and you instantly see the result. For the first 20 years of Java’s existence, development environments were not focused on that experience. It wasn’t until Java 9 that the jshett tool supported rapid and exploratory programming.
2.9. High-Performance
While the performance of interpreted bytecodes is usually more than adequate, there are situations where higher performance is required. The bytecodes can be translated on the fly (at runtime) into machine code for the particular CPU the application is running on.
In the early years of Java, many users disagreed with the statement that the performance was “more than adequate.” Today, however, the just-in-time compilers have become so good that they are competitive with traditional compilers and, in some cases, even outperform them because they have more information available. For example, a just-in-time compiler can monitor which code is executed frequently and optimize just that code for speed. A more sophisticated optimization is the elimination (or “inlining”) of function calls. The just-in-time compiler knows which classes have been loaded. It can use inlining when, based upon the currently loaded collection of classes, a particular function is never overridden, and it can undo that optimization later if necessary.
2.10. Multithreaded
[The] benefits of multithreading are better interactive responsiveness and real-time behavior.
Nowadays, we care about concurrency because Moore’s law has come to an end. Instead of faster processors, we just get more of them, and we have to keep them busy. Yet when you look at most programming languages, they show a shocking disregard for this problem.
Java was well ahead of its time. It was the first mainstream language to support concurrent programming. As you can see from the white paper, its motivation was a little different. At the time, multicore processors were exotic, but web programming had just started, and processors spent a lot of time waiting for a response from the server. Concurrent programming was needed to make sure the user interface didn’t freeze.
Concurrent programming is never easy, but Java has done a very good job making it manageable.
2.11. Dynamic
In a number of ways, Java is a more dynamic language than C or C++. It was designed to adapt to an evolving environment. Libraries can freely add new methods and instance variables without any effect on their clients. In Java, finding out runtime type information is straightforward.
This is an important feature in situations where code needs to be added to a running program. A prime example is code that is downloaded from the Internet to run in a browser. In C or C++, this is indeed a major challenge, but the Java designers were well aware of dynamic languages that made it easy to evolve a running program. Their achievement was to bring this feature to a mainstream programming language.
Source: Horstmann Cay S. (2019), Core Java. Volume I – Fundamentals, Pearson; 11th edition.