species essentialism

Also called the natural state model of species, this was based on the ideas of Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322 BC), and applied by Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778) and others in their search for the perfect ‘type specimen’ for each species. It is the concept that all members of a species share a common natural state

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species, theory of

(Also referred to as the biological species concept, the isolation species concept, the species concept, and the species taxa.) Most often associated with Ernst Mayr (1904- ), an evolutionary biologist at Harvard University (but many other biologists have theorized on the subject before and since). This is the idea that animals and plants can

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stimulus-response model

The stimulus–response model is a characterization of a statistical unit (such as a neuron). The model allows the prediction of a quantitative response to a quantitative stimulus, for example one administered by a researcher. In psychology, stimulus response theory concerns forms of classical conditioning in which a stimulus becomes paired response in a subject’s mind.[1] Fields of application Stimulus–response models are applied

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sufficient reason, principle of

Principle that there must be a sufficient reason – causal or otherwise – for why whatever exists or occurs does so, and does so in the place, time and manner that it does. The principle goes back to at least the early 5th century BC – being used by Parmenides (see Eleaticism) in his Fragment 8, lines

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tropisms, theory of

Proposed by Jacques Loeb (1859-1924), a physiologist and physician who was associated with the Rockefeller Institute in New York. The concept that all the activities of animals and humans are determined by tropisms, just as plant movements are determined by tropisms. Loeb believed that matters of the mind and inner life will ultimately be

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truth theory

Semantic concept formalized by the Polish-American mathematician and logician Alfred Tarski (1902-1983), although other thinkers had previously discussed the idea. Truth theory concerns the truth-values of sentence structures in various formal logical languages. Tarski suggested a table by which these values could be determined (although he was less sure about whether the same rules

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types, ramified theory of

For the simple theory, which Frank Plumpton Ramsey (1903-1930) separated out from the ramified theory, properties of objects are of type one, properties of type one properties are of type two, and so on. The ramified theory further classifies properties of each type into orders. A first-order type n+1 property is a property of things of type

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types, simple theory of

Theory developed by Bertrand Russell (1872-1970) to deal with paradoxes like his paradox of classes: is the class of all classes that are not members of themselves a member of itself? If yes, no; if no, yes. Russell said there is no such class. Classes (and also properties) cannot all be lumped together, but form a hierarchy.

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uniformity of nature, principle of the

A claim that may be offered as a grounding for the INDUCTIVE PRINCIPLE, though it is not always distinguished from the principle itself. It may be crudely formulated as ‘Nature is uniform’, or ‘The future will resemble the past’, or – in a more refined version like that given under inductive principle – with

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utilitarianism, Bentham’s theory of

Utilitarianism is a family of normative ethical theories that prescribe actions that maximize happiness and well-being for all affected individuals.[1][2] Although different varieties of utilitarianism admit different characterizations, the basic idea behind all of them is to in some sense maximize utility, which is often defined in terms of well-being or related concepts. For instance, Jeremy Bentham, the founder of utilitarianism, described utility as “that property in

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Abraham

Abraham[a] (originally Abram)[b] is the common Hebrew patriarch of the Abrahamic religions, including Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.[5] In Judaism, he is the founding father of the special relationship between the Jews and God; in Christianity, he is the spiritual progenitor of all believers, whether Jewish or non-Jewish;[c][6] and in Islam, he is a link in the chain of Islamic prophets that begins with Adam and culminates in Muhammad.[4] The story of the life of Abraham as told

Russell L. Ackoff

Russell Lincoln Ackoff (February 12, 1919 – October 29, 2009) was an American organizational theorist, consultant, and Anheuser-Busch Professor Emeritus of Management Science at the Wharton School, University of Pennsylvania. Ackoff was a pioneer in the field of operations research, systems thinking and management science. Biography Russell L. Ackoff was born on February 12, 1919, in Philadelphia to Jack and Fannie (Weitz) Ackoff.[1][2] He

John Adair

John Eric[1] Adair (born 18 May 1934) is a British academic who is a leadership theorist and author of more than forty books (translated into eighteen languages) on business, military and other leadership.[2] Life Adair was born in Luton and educated at St Paul’s School before undertaking his national service as a second lieutenant in the Scots Guards from 1953 to 1955. Unusually, he served as adjutant of a Bedouin regiment in

Karol Adamiecki

Karol Adamiecki (Dąbrowa Górnicza, 18 March 1866 – 16 May 1933, Warsaw, Poland) was a Polish engineer, management researcher, economist, and professor. Life Ulica Mokotowska 51/53, Warsaw, site of Adamiecki’s activities in 1927-33. Karol Adamiecki was a prominent management researcher in Eastern and Central Europe. He began his research at the Institute of Technology in St. Petersburg, Russia (1884–90). In 1891 he graduated

Ichak Adizes

Ichak Kalderon Adizes (/iːtsˈxɑːk əˈdiːzɪs/ uh-DEE-ziss[2]) is a Yugoslav American business consultant and former tenured professor.[3] Early life Ichak Adizes was born in North Macedonia.[4] As a Jewish child during World War II, he hid in Albania as a Muslim for protection. The story was documented in a film entitled I Want To Remember, He Wants To Forget.[5] In 1948, Adizes moved with his family