Black box model (20TH CENTURY)

Theory of national and international politics. The actions of parties, pressure groups and states, and the relations between them, are fruitfully studied by looking at ‘inputs’ and ‘outputs’ or pressures and actions on the one hand, and the resultant policies on the other. The internal responses and calculations – or the ideological or pragmatic

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Blanquism (19TH CENTURY)

Theory of politics ascribed to and derived from the French socialist Louis-Auguste Blanqui (1805-1881). Capitalist and reactionary regimes are to be overthrown by a revolutionary coup d’etat, carried out by an elite of dedicated revolutionaries. They will then use the power of the state to introduce a regime based on equality. Critics of Leninism often portray it as a species of Blanquism. Source:

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Bolshevism (1903- )

Theory of revolutionary action associated with the Bolshevik (Red) Party in Russia under the leadership of Vladimir Ilyich Lenin (1870-1924). In order to move from capitalism to socialism and eventually to communism, a vanguard party is necessary to lead the working class against the capitalist state. This party will hold opinions in advance of the class which it leads, and in

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Budget-maximization theory (20TH CENTURY)

Theory of bureaucracy. Bureaucrats will seek to expand the budgets of their departments, irrespective of what their formal political commitments or personal ambitions may be. This will lead them both to expand the numbers of their staff and the volume of their funds and facilities, and to extend or develop the areas over which they

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Capital logic (20TH CENTURY)

A theory within Marxism. The form and character of political institutions are determined by those of economic ones. The ‘logic’ of capital thus shapes that of government. The theory has been criticized as mechanical and inflexible. Source: Bob Jessop, The Capitalist State (Oxford, 1982) Capital Logic is a powerful graphical and design-management environment for authoring

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Centralization

An belief in the efficiency of the concentration of powers. Organizations will run more effectively, and policies be formed and implemented more efficiently, if power is exercized centrally. This is believed to facilitate coherent action, and the most appropriate mobilization and application of resources. It is contrasted with subsidiarity. Centralisation in politics History of the

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Chicken (20TH CENTURY)

An application of game theory. Political conflicts arise which are analogous to the game of chicken in which two contestants will, for instance, drive towards each other in motor cars. If both hold their course, both will crash. The one who saves herself, and so her opponent, is the ‘chicken’. As in other ‘games’, the

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Christian socialism (19TH CENTURY)

Religion theory of the social responsibility of the Christian Church, developed within the Anglican Church in Britain in the 19th century. Christian teaching has social and economic implications, and the Church should take a lead in both improving the conditions of the working class and providing moral and cultural leadership to allow its members

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Circulation of elites (19TH CENTURY- )

Theory of political change described by Italian social scientist Vilfredo Pareto (1848-1923). Changes of regime, revolutions, and so on occur not when rulers are overthrown from below, but when one elite replaces another. The role of ordinary people in such transformation is not that of initiators or principal actors, but as followers and supporters of one

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Citizenship

Theory of the value of political participation. People are citizens when they participate to the fullest possible extent in the politics and government of their societies. Ideally all citizens are available for public office, though this is not feasible in large modern states. Citizens engage in political discussion and participation not as means to

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Civil disobedience

Theory of principled law breaking. The expression was used by the American writer Henry David Thoreau (1817-1862) in his essay ‘On the Duty of Civil Disobedience’, and put into action by Mahatma (Mohandas) Gandhi (1869-1948). There is a conflict between a general obligation to obey the law in free and constitutional societies, and the

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Civil society (19th century- )

Theory of non-governmental aspects of modern society, developed by German philosopher GW Freidrich Hegel (1770-1831) and German political economist Karl Marx (1818-1883). Hegel: in modern societies there is a civil or non-political sphere which, whilst it might be affected by government, is separate from it. Thus whilst politics takes place in political society, religion, economics, and voluntary association

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Class dealignment (20TH CENTURY)

Theory of voting. Whereas previously there was a significant relationship between voting and social class, this link is now being broken and other considerations – of policy, moral issues, religious alliance, and so on – are taking its place. Source: Henry Drucker et al., eds, Developments in British Politics 2 (London, 1986) Partisan dealignment

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Class voting (20TH CENTURY)

Explanation of voting. At some point in the development of industrialism and of democracy, economic class becomes the single most important factor in voting. Members of the working class tend to vote for left wing parties, those of the middle classes for right wing parties. Were this theory an adequate account of voting, all governments

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Clerisy (19TH CENTURY- )

Advocacy of cultural elitism, particularly by English poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834) and Anglo-American poet T.S. Eliot (1888-1965). In any society, there will be a minority who are distinguished by exceptional intellect, refinement, or understanding. They should, without necessarily ruling directly, set the tone and the agenda for the life of the majority. Clerisy is

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Cock-up theory (20TH CENTURY)

Anonymous sceptical view of history. History is frequently to be explained by the ordinary errors and inadequacies of people, especially powerful people, rather than by any grand theory. The theory expresses a common skepticism towards both intellectual and personal pretension, and the view that behind most great men there is a far more mundane mixture of idleness

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Collective security (20TH CENTURY)

Theory in international relations. Nations achieve security from attack by collective military agreements of all nations with each other to join forces against any aggressor. An alternative to balance of power. Source: Graham Evans and Jeffrey Newnham, The Dictionary of World Politics (Hemel Hempstead, 1990) History Early mentions Collective security is one of the most

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Collectivism (20TH CENTURY)

Theory of social and political organization. The major problems facing individuals are ones which they share in common with others. The solutions, correspondingly, are most effective when pursued in common or collectively. The provision of welfare and the cultivation of the economy, in particular, are best conducted through collective rather than individual action. The

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Collegialism (20TH CENTURY)

Non-managerial theory of organizational power. Organizations and enterprises are most appropriately run by co-operative agreement amongst those directly involved. Collegialism is particulary associated with the professions, and is in that sense a form of middle class guild socialism. It is contrasted with managerialism, which recommends placing control in a core of specialists who are not directly

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Common good (20TH CENTURY)

Theory of shared interests. There exists a desirable end for governmental or public policy which is good for the whole society. This ‘common good’ can be discovered by informed and reasoned thought, and though it may overlap with the good of particular groups or individuals, is different from and greater than the interest of any

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