Radical interpretation

A notion similar to that of Willard Van Orman Quine (1908-2000) (indeterminacy of translation), thought of primarily in connection with Donald Davidson (1930-2003) and his truth-conditional theory of meaning (see convention t). To construct axioms suitable for deriving a theory of meaning for an alien language, we must interpret the utterances of its speakers. It is here that we

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Radical empiricism

Name given by American William James (1842-1910) to his own pragmatist philosophy. Also see: neutral monism Source: W James, Essays in Radical Empiricism (1912) Radical empiricism Radical empiricism is a postulate, a statement of fact, and a conclusion, says James in The Meaning of Truth. The postulate is that “the only things that shall be debatable among philosophers

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Pythagoreanism

Ideas held over the next two centuries by followers of Pythagoras of Samos (6th century BC). Pythagoras is said to have founded a semi-religious brotherhood which developed doctrines about reincarnation and purification. He is also credited with noticing that simple harmonies (octave, fifth and so on) are associated with simple arithmetical ratios. He or his followers (who

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Pyrrhonism

An extreme form of skepticism, associated with Pyrrho of Elis (c.365-275 BC) and developed by his followers, notably Aenesidemus (1st century BC) and Sextus Empiricus (2nd century AD). Pyrrhonism’s distinguishing feature lay in its application of scepticism to itself: not only could we not know anything, but we could not even know that we could

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Psychophysical parallelism

Doctrine that mental and physical events are of entirely different kinds, so that while mental events can cause other mental events and physical events can cause other physical events they cannot cause each other but occur in parallel series. If I touch a hot stove, feel a pain, withdraw my hand, and decide to

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Psychologism

The habit of treating philosophical or theoretical problems as though they were psychological ones, to be solved by methods such as introspection. Properly speaking it is only a theory when engaged in deliberately rather than, as more often, unconsciously or through confusion, though the distinction is not sharp. Psychologism is common in the early

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Propensity theory of probability

Theory mainly associated with Karl Raimund Popper (1902-1994), though it goes back to Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914). Popper introduces it to replace the frequency theory of probability in view of an objection he brings to that. Probabilities are propensities, not of objects under study but of the experimental arrangements which we keep constant during repeated experiments. Though not directly observable, Popper claims

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Process philosophy

Any of a variety of theories emphasizing that the basic reality in the universe is not objects or substances but processes. Objects are mere temporary bodies in the general flux, and are not sharply separated from one another; and real time is continuous and not an accretion of instantaneous moments. Process philosophy can be

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Probabilism

Name for various theories, including: first, the view that certainty is unattainable and that we should therefore seek and be satisfied with mere probabilities (a mild form of skepticism); secondly, the view that science can give positive probabilities to hypotheses and need not content itself with falsificationism. These two views can be thought of as approaching

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Private language argument (1953)

Debate initiated by the Austrian philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951) in his posthumous Philosophical Investigations. This debate concerns the question of whether there could possibly exist a private language; that is, a language which is ‘necessarily unteachable’ because the meanings of words known by an individual are based on private and undemonstrable experiences of their referents. Wittgenstein

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Prescriptivism

Like emotivism, which it grew naturally out of in the 1950s, a form of speech act theory which analyzes value judgments and especially moral judgments, this time in terms of prescriptions. When I tell you that lying is wrong I am telling you not to lie, though I am also committing myself not to lie, and to

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Preference utilitarianism

Version of utilitarianism which contrasts with both hedonistic utilitarianism and ideal utilitarianism by specifying the end to be pursued in terms neither of pleasure nor of other specific values, but in terms of maximizing the satisfaction of desires or preferences, whatever their objects. This answers at least some of the objections to the rival versions mentioned above, and some form

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Doctrine of pre-established harmony

Doctrine primarily associated with Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716) that there is no causation in the world but that each event arises when it does because it was pre-programmed to do so by God when the universe began. The doctrine is often illustrated by the image of the two clocks -attributed to Arnold Geulincx (1625-1669) – which keep perfect

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Pragmatism

Theory, originally developed by American scientist and philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914), that the meanings of concepts and propositions lay in their possible effects on our experiences and practices. He also originated the pragmatic theory of truth. Peirce was thinking mainly of scientific or intellectual concepts, and called his own view pragmaticism when his follower William James (1842-1910) broadened the

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Pragmatic (or pragmatist) theory of truth

American scientist and philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914) defined truth as ‘the opinion which is fated to be ultimately agreed to by all who investigate’ (see Buchler). His disciple William James (1842-1910) held that truth was indeed agreement with reality, but that what counted as ‘agreeing with reality’ was what worked, in the sense of ultimately satisfying us.

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Positivism

A movement in the general tradition of empiricism and pioneered specifically by the French writer Auguste Comte (1798-1857), though under the influence of the social reformer Claude Henri, Compte de Saint-Simon (1760-1825), whom he served as secretary. The main features of positivism were an insistence on a scientific approach to the human, as well as the natural, world;

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Plurality of causes

Principle saying that, though the same cause must have the same effect each time, the same effect need not have the same cause each time. (Of course the cause on one occasion may be complex and involve many contributory factors; but could these be replaced by different factors when the effect next occurs?) The

Principle of plenitude

Principle that if the universe is to be as perfect as possible it must be as full as possible, in the sense that it contains as many kinds of things as it possibly could contain. The world of nature must be as rich as possible. This is connected with the idea, used by St

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Plato’s theory of forms (or ideas)

Theory developed by Plato (c.427-c.347 BC) in his middle-period dialogues (especially Phaedo, Symposium, Republic) and criticized by himself in his Parmenides (see third man argument). The language of the theory occurs in his earlier dialogues, but its interpretation is disputed, as is his reaction in later dialogues to the Parmenides criticisms: did he modify the theory, abandon it, or treat the

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Platonism

Strictly, the philosophy of Plato (c.427-c.347 BC), but the word is often applied to any view which treats a given subject-matter as involving substantial, though abstract, entities (irrespective of Plato’s own view on the topic in question). Such subject-matters have included numbers, propositions, universals (roughly, things named by words ending in ‘-hood’, ‘-ness’, ‘-ty’). Platonism is thus