Identity theory of truth

Named by STEWART CANDLISH (in Mind, 1989) and recently attributed to the idealist philosopher Francis Herbert Bradley (1846-1924). It is also seen as having strong affinities with the views of George Edward Moore (1873-1958) and Bertrand Russell (1872-1970) at one period in the development of their respective philosophies, and possibly with that of Gottlob Frege (1848-1925). The theory says that the truth

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Immaterialism

Name coined by George Berkeley (1685-1753) for his own philosophy, now more usually called subjective idealism. Berkeley’s choice of the term was to emphasize his own view that matter does not exist, but in calling his opponents (Rene Descartes (1596-1650), John Locke (1632-1704), and so on) materialists he was using ‘materialist’ in an unusually weak sense. Descartes and others did indeed

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Principle of the impossibility of a gambling system

Principle that a properly defined collective (see frequency theory of probability) will be random in a sense that makes it impossible to construct a system for predicting results with any greater probability than would be possible without the system. The principle was named by the German mathematician and philosopher Richard von Mises(1883-1953). The key condition is

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Improbabilism

Somewhat bizarre name occasionally given to the view that the scientist should look for the most improbable hypothesis, because it will be the easiest to refute, if false, but the most significant to accept if it survives testing. Improbabilism is associated especially with Karl Raimund Popper (1902-1994). For him, the only way a hypothesis can be

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Indeterminacy of reference and translation

Willard Van Orman Quine (1908-2000), the American mathematical logician, has claimed that when translating an alien language we construct hypotheses as to what is being said, or what items the words refer to; however, except in a few basic cases, it is impossible in principle to decide conclusively between different hypotheses which differ in ways

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Indeterminism

The contradictory of determinism; that is, the theory that at least some events have no cause. An alternative formulation is that some event could, or might, have been different even if everything in the universe up to the time of its occurrence had been the same. (Here there are problems about the interpretation of ‘could’

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Principle of indifference (16TH CENTURY)

The fundamental principle of statistical theory that unless there is a reason for believing otherwise, each possible event should be regarded as equally likely. In this crude form, the principle leads to paradoxes because we can group the alternatives in different ways: the next flower I meet might be blue or red, so its

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Indiscernibility of identicals

One part of Leibniz’s law, named by Willard Van Orman Quine (1908-2000), the American mathematical logician. It says that if what appear to be two or more objects are in fact identical, there can be no property held by one and not by the others. This must be distinguished from the sub-stitutivity of identicals, which says that

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Individuation principle

The means by which separate items or individuals are distinguished. Debate over the years has centred upon the question of whether such individuation is achieved through some inherent characteristic or through some formal acceptance of a necessary ‘uniqueness’ belonging to every being and object. Single items Aristotle The question of the principle of individuation

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Induction

Also known as mathematical induction or finite induction, this affirms that to prove that a certain property P holds for all natural numbers, it suffices to show that P(l) is true and that P(k + 1) is true whenever P(k) is true. Intuitively, one can think of this in terms of climbing a ladder,

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Inductivism

Claim that inference in accordance with some version of the inductive principle is, if not logically valid, at least rationally legitimate. Objections to it include those mentioned under uniformity of nature and Goodman’s paradox. Source: R Swinburne, ed., The Justification of Induction (1974) Philosophers’ debates Inductivist endorsement Francis Bacon, articulating inductivism in England, is often falsely stereotyped as

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Infinite divisibility (5TH CENTURY BC)

Concept first discussed by the Greek philosopher Zeno of Elea, who argued that infinite divisibility was a logical impossibility. According to the theory, nothing is infinitely divisible as all actual entities must be finite if they are to exist at all. To be infinitely divisible, an entity would have to be of infinite size. In

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Innate ideas

Ideas or concepts that we allegedly acquire or possess prior to experience can be called a priori (literally, ‘from beforehand’). Sometimes, however, it is claimed that they are innate; that is, we have them from birth. This is a stronger claim, since we might well (on a weaker view) acquire an idea independently of

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Inscriptionism

Also called inscriptivism. An inscription, in the relevant sense, is a word or phrase or sentence considered as written (or uttered) on some particular occasion. Inscriptionism is any view making significant use of such inscriptions, considered as contrasted with abstract entities such as meanings which they might be thought to represent. One might, for

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Instrumentalism

Mainly now the theory that scientific laws and theories are not to be interpreted as stating truths, or as claiming objective correctness, but as instruments for the prediction of statements which can be tested by observation. It is in terms of usefulness rather than correctness that the laws are judged. Instrumentalism has its greatest

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Interactionism

Theory of how body and mind are related. It can mean simply that there are two types of events, physical and mental, either of which can cause the other; for example, a pin-prick causes pain, and pain causes screaming. More usually, though, it is a philosophical theory grounding interactions of this kind in the

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Internalism

Any view claiming that a certain phenomenon can, or must, be analyzed in terms belonging within a certain sphere. In particular, internalism applies to certain analyses of mental notions such as belief and knowledge. An internalist analysis of believing, thinking of something, and so on, limits itself entirely to what is going on inside

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Doctrine of internal relations

Doctrine that all relations are internal to their bearers, in the sense that they are essential to them and the bearers would not be what they are without them. Some relations are clearly internal in this sense (four would not be four unless it were related to two by being its square), and some

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Intuitionism

Any view holding that some of our knowledge is got by a direct process not depending on the senses and not open to rational assessment. The objects of such knowledge may include: moral principles (whether as the basis of duty or as ultimate values); particular moral duties on a particular occasion (sometimes called perceptual

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Isolationism

In aesthetics, the doctrine that a work of art can be appreciated independently of its cultural background, the circumstances of its production, the artist’s intentions, and so on (also see: contextualism). In politics, the doctrine that a nation’s (or some particular nation’s) interests are best served by minimizing its interference in affairs outside its own borders, or

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