Civil society (19th century- )

Theory of non-governmental aspects of modern society, developed by German philosopher GW Freidrich Hegel (1770-1831) and German political economist Karl Marx (1818-1883). Hegel: in modern societies there is a civil or non-political sphere which, whilst it might be affected by government, is separate from it. Thus whilst politics takes place in political society, religion, economics, and voluntary association

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Class dealignment (20TH CENTURY)

Theory of voting. Whereas previously there was a significant relationship between voting and social class, this link is now being broken and other considerations – of policy, moral issues, religious alliance, and so on – are taking its place. Source: Henry Drucker et al., eds, Developments in British Politics 2 (London, 1986) Partisan dealignment

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Class voting (20TH CENTURY)

Explanation of voting. At some point in the development of industrialism and of democracy, economic class becomes the single most important factor in voting. Members of the working class tend to vote for left wing parties, those of the middle classes for right wing parties. Were this theory an adequate account of voting, all governments

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Clerisy (19TH CENTURY- )

Advocacy of cultural elitism, particularly by English poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834) and Anglo-American poet T.S. Eliot (1888-1965). In any society, there will be a minority who are distinguished by exceptional intellect, refinement, or understanding. They should, without necessarily ruling directly, set the tone and the agenda for the life of the majority. Clerisy is

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Cock-up theory (20TH CENTURY)

Anonymous sceptical view of history. History is frequently to be explained by the ordinary errors and inadequacies of people, especially powerful people, rather than by any grand theory. The theory expresses a common skepticism towards both intellectual and personal pretension, and the view that behind most great men there is a far more mundane mixture of idleness

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Collective security (20TH CENTURY)

Theory in international relations. Nations achieve security from attack by collective military agreements of all nations with each other to join forces against any aggressor. An alternative to balance of power. Source: Graham Evans and Jeffrey Newnham, The Dictionary of World Politics (Hemel Hempstead, 1990) History Early mentions Collective security is one of the most

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Collectivism (20TH CENTURY)

Theory of social and political organization. The major problems facing individuals are ones which they share in common with others. The solutions, correspondingly, are most effective when pursued in common or collectively. The provision of welfare and the cultivation of the economy, in particular, are best conducted through collective rather than individual action. The

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Collegialism (20TH CENTURY)

Non-managerial theory of organizational power. Organizations and enterprises are most appropriately run by co-operative agreement amongst those directly involved. Collegialism is particulary associated with the professions, and is in that sense a form of middle class guild socialism. It is contrasted with managerialism, which recommends placing control in a core of specialists who are not directly

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Common good (20TH CENTURY)

Theory of shared interests. There exists a desirable end for governmental or public policy which is good for the whole society. This ‘common good’ can be discovered by informed and reasoned thought, and though it may overlap with the good of particular groups or individuals, is different from and greater than the interest of any

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Communalism

Advocacy of communes. There is a positive value in individuals cooperating with each other in small groups, rather than relying on individual effort. Communalism differs from collectivism in that it values groups small enough for all members to be familiar with one another; and in seeing the benefits of co-operation as consisting as much in social

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Communism

Theory of ideal society. The management of material resources should be a common enterprise of the whole society. A communist society would be characterized by the absence of private property, classes based on economic possession, or any form of state. The term was loosely and strictly nonsensically applied to the state socialist regimes of Eastern Europe

Communitarism (20TH CENTURY)

Theory of democracy. Because of the large number of voters in modern democracies, elections provide a greatly diluted form of political participation. Representative, indirect politics – with voters meeting and discussing and choosing at local level – achieves some of the involvement in a political community which otherwise would be lost. Source: Anne Phillips, Engendering

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Complex interdepence (20TH CENTURY)

Theory of international politics. Nations are involved in a complex network of interdependence such that states are not necessarily the appropriate unit of analysis. Source: Graham Evans and Jeffrey Newnham, The Dictionary of World Politics (Hemel Hempstead, 1990) History of the term The term “complex interdependence” was claimed by Raymond Leslie Buell in 1925

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Conflict theory

Theory of politics as moderated antagonism. Politics is best seen as competition or conflict over resources, power, or prestige. The term covers a wide range of theories, amongst which, appropriately, there is no agreement, but of which Marxism is the most familiar. Also see: dialectical materialism Source: Alan Bullock, Oliver Stallybrass, and Stephen Trombley, eds, The Fontana Dictionary

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Consciousness-raising (20TH CENTURY)

Feminist theory of understanding. Women’s understanding of their social and political situation is achieved by group discussion in which personal experience is related and re-assessed. Individual experience is thus shown to be both typical (rather than isolated or abnormal), and a basis for wider social and political action and understanding. Source: Maggie Humm, The

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Consent

Theory of basis of political obligation. The sole justification for enforcing laws is if those against whom they are enforced have consented to the general arrangements in which the laws are drawn up. Thus the consent of the governed is the only thing that can legitimate a system of government. There is disagreement about

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Conservatism (19TH CENTURY- )

Political theory based on tradition. The institutions of human society and government have evolved slowly and survive because they have stood the test of time. Social life is thus formed by processes beyond the rational comprehension of any single person. The principle virtue is thus caution, in not seeking ambitiously to go beyond the

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Conservative paradox (1991)

Theory of government described by English political scientist Rodney Barker (1942- ). Conservatives, and others, assume that those whom they govern but who are in revolt or rebellion or are otherwise disaffected, share the same values and beliefs as their rulers. Therefore, like naughty children who accept the values of their parents, they will be not

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Conspiracy

Theory of political power. In many or all social and political situations, there is a small group of people who deliberately, in concert, and in secret pursue an objective of their own. They do so under cover of the ostensible constitution or political arrangements. Conspiracy theory has variously identified communists, Jews, the secret service,

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Constitutionalism

Theory of government limited by law. Constitutions, either in the form of written law or established convention, can provide a framework within which government should operate, and by which it can be prevented from despotic conduct or the infringement of rights. The theory of constitutionalism has much in common with that of the rule of law.

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