Principle of indifference (16TH CENTURY)

The fundamental principle of statistical theory that unless there is a reason for believing otherwise, each possible event should be regarded as equally likely. In this crude form, the principle leads to paradoxes because we can group the alternatives in different ways: the next flower I meet might be blue or red, so its

1 Comments

Indiscernibility of identicals

One part of Leibniz’s law, named by Willard Van Orman Quine (1908-2000), the American mathematical logician. It says that if what appear to be two or more objects are in fact identical, there can be no property held by one and not by the others. This must be distinguished from the sub-stitutivity of identicals, which says that

2 Comments

Individuation principle

The means by which separate items or individuals are distinguished. Debate over the years has centred upon the question of whether such individuation is achieved through some inherent characteristic or through some formal acceptance of a necessary ‘uniqueness’ belonging to every being and object. Single items Aristotle The question of the principle of individuation

1 Comments

Induction

Also known as mathematical induction or finite induction, this affirms that to prove that a certain property P holds for all natural numbers, it suffices to show that P(l) is true and that P(k + 1) is true whenever P(k) is true. Intuitively, one can think of this in terms of climbing a ladder,

3 Comments

Inductivism

Claim that inference in accordance with some version of the inductive principle is, if not logically valid, at least rationally legitimate. Objections to it include those mentioned under uniformity of nature and Goodman’s paradox. Source: R Swinburne, ed., The Justification of Induction (1974) Philosophers’ debates Inductivist endorsement Francis Bacon, articulating inductivism in England, is often falsely stereotyped as

1 Comments

Infinite divisibility (5TH CENTURY BC)

Concept first discussed by the Greek philosopher Zeno of Elea, who argued that infinite divisibility was a logical impossibility. According to the theory, nothing is infinitely divisible as all actual entities must be finite if they are to exist at all. To be infinitely divisible, an entity would have to be of infinite size. In

1 Comments

Innate ideas

Ideas or concepts that we allegedly acquire or possess prior to experience can be called a priori (literally, ‘from beforehand’). Sometimes, however, it is claimed that they are innate; that is, we have them from birth. This is a stronger claim, since we might well (on a weaker view) acquire an idea independently of

1 Comments

Inscriptionism

Also called inscriptivism. An inscription, in the relevant sense, is a word or phrase or sentence considered as written (or uttered) on some particular occasion. Inscriptionism is any view making significant use of such inscriptions, considered as contrasted with abstract entities such as meanings which they might be thought to represent. One might, for

1 Comments

Instrumentalism

Mainly now the theory that scientific laws and theories are not to be interpreted as stating truths, or as claiming objective correctness, but as instruments for the prediction of statements which can be tested by observation. It is in terms of usefulness rather than correctness that the laws are judged. Instrumentalism has its greatest

3 Comments

Interactionism

Theory of how body and mind are related. It can mean simply that there are two types of events, physical and mental, either of which can cause the other; for example, a pin-prick causes pain, and pain causes screaming. More usually, though, it is a philosophical theory grounding interactions of this kind in the

1 Comments

Internalism

Any view claiming that a certain phenomenon can, or must, be analyzed in terms belonging within a certain sphere. In particular, internalism applies to certain analyses of mental notions such as belief and knowledge. An internalist analysis of believing, thinking of something, and so on, limits itself entirely to what is going on inside

3 Comments

Doctrine of internal relations

Doctrine that all relations are internal to their bearers, in the sense that they are essential to them and the bearers would not be what they are without them. Some relations are clearly internal in this sense (four would not be four unless it were related to two by being its square), and some

1 Comments

Intuitionism

Any view holding that some of our knowledge is got by a direct process not depending on the senses and not open to rational assessment. The objects of such knowledge may include: moral principles (whether as the basis of duty or as ultimate values); particular moral duties on a particular occasion (sometimes called perceptual

3 Comments

Isaac Newton

Ideas – Invention of differential and integral calculus. – Clarification of concepts of inertia and force. – Formulation of three laws of motion, making possible the science of rational mechanics. – Proof of the composite nature of white light. – Construction of the first refleecting telescope. – Insistence on the experimental basis of true

1 Comments

Isolationism

In aesthetics, the doctrine that a work of art can be appreciated independently of its cultural background, the circumstances of its production, the artist’s intentions, and so on (also see: contextualism). In politics, the doctrine that a nation’s (or some particular nation’s) interests are best served by minimizing its interference in affairs outside its own borders, or

4 Comments

James Clerk Maxwell

Ideas – Electricity and magnetism are two aspects of a single unified force of nature, best described as dynamical as dynamical fields. – Light consists of transverse electromagnetic waves, and is but one portion of a broad spectrum of such waves. – Thermodynamic laws and properties of gases may be derived from a statistical

1 Comments

Jean Jacques Rousseau

Ideas – Man is by nature good; society is the cause of corruption and vice. – In a state of nature, the individual is characterized by healthy self-love; self-love is accompanied by a natural compassion. – In society, natural self-love becomes corrupted into a venal pride, which seeks only the good opinion of others

2 Comments

Jean-Paul Sartre

Ideas – For human beings, ‘existence precedes essence’; we are defined by our choices and actions and not by a fixed ‘human nature’. – The direction a person’s life will take is always in question and a matter of contingency. – We exist in situations – typically these are interpersonal and social – and

2 Comments

Johannes Kepler

Ideas – God did not create the universe haphazardly. A rational architecture underlies the structure of the solar system. – Three laws govern the motion of the planets: 1. Planets move in elliptical, not circular orbits, 2. The velocities of the planets are not uniform but vary at different points in their orbits; the

2 Comments

John Calvin

Ideas – Though God’s essential nature is incomprehensible, partial knowledge of God is available through God’s self-revelation. – The Bible is the sole source of this adapted revelation. – The Bible reveals God as the triume crateor of everything, actively and universally ruling all aspects of the continuing creation. – The Bible reveals humanity