Open society (1945)

Theory of government and social order of the Austrian philosopher Karl Popper (1902-1994). An open society, as opposed to a planned or goal-directed society, is one in which governments have no ultimate aims, and hence one where people enjoy the maximum freedom to experiment and innovate. Source: Karl Popper, The Open Society and its Enemies (London,

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Organic theory of the state

Theory of the state as analogous to a natural organism. The state is better understood as a ‘natural’ rather than a ‘mechanical’ phenomenon, with different institutions performing different functions, and the good health of the whole being attributable as much to the good working of the whole as to the contribution of any particular part. Also see: social Darwinism

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Overkill

Theory in military strategy which asserts that if a state has so much weaponry that it can defend itself, destroy any aggressor (and perhaps the world) and still have weapons to spare, it is capable of overkill. Not surprisingly, the concept has been met with a mixture of derision and dismay, and has passed into common

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Overload theory (20TH CENTURY)

Application of crisis theory to the modern state. Modern states have more demands made upon them than they can meet. They are, by analogy with machines, overloaded and break down, or inefficiency results. The Left sees overload as a failure of capitalism; the Right of welfare socialism. Source: Geoffrey Roberts and Alistair Edwards, A New Dictionary of Political

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Owenism (19TH CENTURY)

Views of -and following- the Welsh manufacturer and socialist Robert Owen (1771-1858). Human character is shaped by circumstance. It can therefore be transformed by good working conditions, proper housing, and education. Owen himself attempted to promote this by variously exhorting industrialists, establishing model communities, and encouraging pressure from below through trade unions and co-operatives.

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Pacifism

Ethical objection to violence. Violence and the taking of life are morally wrong. People should therefore refuse to engage in or support military activity, and no cause can justify the use of military force. There can therefore be no such thing as a just war. Source: David Miller et al., eds, The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of

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Para bellum

Theory, or phrase, justifying military preparations. The best way to preserve peace is to prepare for war since by so doing you make attack on yourself unlikely. Also see: deterrence Source: Graham Evans and Jeffrey Newnham, The Dictionary of World Politics (Hemel Hempstead, 1990) Parabellum commonly refers to the 9×19mm Parabellum firearms cartridge designed by Georg Luger and

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Paternalism

Justification of central or professional power. There will in any state be those who have a better insight into the needs of society than do ordinary people, and this insight should be employed to shape and implement government policy for the mass of the population. Source: David Miller et al., eds, The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought

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Patriarchy (17TH AND 20TH CENTURIES)

Rule or domination by kings, fathers, or men in general. Either the argument that authority is derived by kings and aristocrats from God, whose fatherhood of all they represent on earth; or the view that power is divided along lines of gender and in favor of men. The original theory of patriarchy was employed in the

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Peaceful co-existence (20TH CENTURY)

Optimistic theory of international relations. Extension of liberal ideas on toleration to international society, so that ideological differences do not cause diplomatic or military conflict. Source:Peaceful co-existenceand Jeffrey Newnham, The Dictionary of World Politics (Hemel Hempstead, 1990) Soviet policy Khrushchev solidified the concept in Soviet foreign policy in 1956 at the 20th Congress of the

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Permanent revolution (20TH CENTURY)

Theory of revolution of the Russian revolutionaryLeon Trotsky (1879-1940). Socialist revolution and the overthrow of capitalism will only be complete when they are worldwide. There should therefore be no pause in revolutionary activity simply because power has been seized in a single country. This theory is thus opposed to that of socialism in one country. Source: David Miller et al., eds, The

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Personal is political (20TH CENTURY)

Deliberately paradoxical phrase intended to subvert the limitations of the public private divide. The distinction made by liberals between the public world and the private world is mistaken. It functions, moreover, to sustain the oppression of women since it presents the structured inequalities of the household as the result of free individual choice. Source: Carol

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Pierre Joseph Proudhon

French writer and political theorist, sometimes referred to as the father of modern anarchism. Pierre-Joseph Proudhon was born in Besançon on January 15, 1809. Proudhon is a rarity among anarchist philosophers in that he was of quite humble peasant origins. He began his working life herding cows and doing chores at home. His mother, Catherine

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Pluralism (20TH CENTURY)

Descriptive and prescriptive theory of power in modern societies. Either: since people gain their identity from the groups of which they are members, political power should wherever possible be distributed to functional groups; or: in modern democracies, bargaining between groups contributes as much to policy as does formal democracy. Also see: impacted pluralism Source: David Miller et al., eds,

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Police state

Theory of purposeful government. In popular speech a police state is a despotic, arbitrary and tyrannical one. The technical use of the term is different. A police state is one where the institutions and officials of the state act not in response to public pressures or demands but as the agents of some clear purpose of

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Polis

Theory, originating in ancient Greece, of political community. Life as a citizen in the polis was the highest form of human activity, in which all (adult males) participated, and all were equal. The idea of the polis remains potent for those who see politics as potentially a fulfilling activity in its own right, and

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Political correctness (1980S)

Pejorative term for an overly rigid or token adherence to a liberal canon of beliefs. This novel orthodoxy first surfaced in the USA as lobbyists for disadvantaged minorities began exerting significant political influence; and, consequently, as issues of gender, ethnicity and physical disability were widely promoted as legitimate subjects for sympathetic academic scrutiny. Opponents

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Political culture (20TH CENTURY)

Explanation of the character of politics. A nation or a society is characterized by a political culture, into which its children are inducted, and by learning which they participate and preserve values and institutions. Source: Geoffrey Roberts and Alistair Edwards, A New Dictionary of Political Analysis (London, 1987) Definition María Eugenia Vázquez Semadeni defines

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Political obligation

Theory of the moral requirement to obey law. A moral or normative obligation exists, or can be created, to obey the law or lawfully established authorities. The basis of this obligation is a matter for wide dispute, and ranges from the free consent of the governed to divine law. Source: David Miller et al.,

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Polyarchy (20TH CENTURY)

Theory of politics described by American political scientist Robert Dahl (1915-). In modern democracies the people cannot literally rule in the classic sense of democracy, but if there are free and open democratic procedures, and a variety of groups and organizations, then the many may be said to rule. Polyarchy can be said to exist when democracy

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