Aristocracy (20TH CENTURY)

Aristocracy is the theory of hierarchy. Originally from the Greek ‘rule by the best’, but now attribution of quality to hereditary elites. In any society there will be a minority of people of superior skill, wisdom, experience and moral fibre. These qualities are likely to be transmitted through families and are thus to all

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Atavism (1825-1835)

Meaning the reversion to an earlier type (a throwback) that has been absent during intervening generations, the concept of atavism dates from antiquity. In modernity, the idea was applied by CESARE LOMBROSO (1835-1909), an Italian criminologist who believed that ‘the criminal mind’ was caused by a primitive human state. American sociologist Thorstein Veblen (1857-1929) applied atavism

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Biological determinism

Theory of human character. Normally attributed to thinkers rather than claimed by them. Human character is determined by physical, biological characteristics, which are inherited. Racism and sexism both frequently employ the assumptions of biological determinism to divide people into groups which are alleged to differ in ability and inclination. Biological determinism, also known as genetic determinism,[1] is the belief

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Bureaucracy (20TH CENTURY)

Theory of organization in modern society, developed in particular by the German sociologist Max Weber (1864-1920). Bureaucracy is the characteristic form of organization in modern society, not only in its government but in commerce and social institutions. Responsibility is vested in full-time officials whose livelihood is derived from their salaries and who are appointed on merit.

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Communications theory (20TH CENTURY)

Explanation of human society in terms of communication of meanings. The existence of social relations and of human society depends on the creation of shared meanings and understandings. These in turn depend on the communication of such meanings amongst people, and in this process language plays a central role. There are many differing accounts

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Corporatism (20TH CENTURY)

Corporatism is descriptive and prescriptive theory of government’s relations with society. It is sometimes termed neo-corporatism to distinguish it from the political theories of fascism. In the prescriptive version, all those engaged in a common enterprise, particularly as a means of making a living, have a common interest and should deal with government through their

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Eugenics (1883)

Coined by Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911), British scientist and cousin of evolutionary theorist Charles Darwin (1809-1882), this is the doctrine that such human qualities as intelligence and character are inherited, and that humanity should take deliberate steps to produce fine offspring. ‘Positive’ eugenics refers to the reproduction of desirable types, whereas ‘negative’ eugenics refers to efforts

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Feminist linguistics (1960S- )

Originally expressed in terms of political feminism, recently more technically articulated through the contribution of linguists such as Jennifer Coates and Deborah Tannen. Studies of women’s language, of language and sexism, and of male bias in linguistic theory. Also see: GENDER AND LANGUAGE Source: D Tannen, Feminism and Linguistic Theory (London, 1985) History Linguistic activism and feminist

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Feminist methodology (20TH CENTURY)

The application of feminist theory to methods and concepts of sociological investigation. Feminist research practice requires a critical stance towards existing methodology in the social sciences. While an attention to the responsibilities, rights and particular knowledge of those studied, and a recognition of gendered power relationships in the conduct and process of research may not be unique to feminist methodology;

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Functionalism (20TH CENTURY)

Theory of relation of parts to social whole. Society is a system of interrelated institutions and processes, which are to be understood in terms of the function they perform for the system as a whole. These functions are not necessarily intended, and may even be contrary to the expressed intentions of those concerned. Also

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Grand theory

A class of theories rather than a particular one. Grand theory is any theory which attempts an overall explanation of social life, history, or human experience. It is normally contrasted with empiricism, positivism, or the view that understanding is only possible by studying particular instances, societies, or phenomena. Source: Quentin Skinner, ed., The Return of Grand

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Grounded theory (20TH CENTURY)

Attempt to relate empirical and theoretical social science. Theories which seek to explain political or social phenomena must be ‘grounded’ in empirical observation, otherwise they are simple inventions. Also see: empiricism Source: Barney G Glaser, The Discovery of Grounded Theory (New York, 1967) Background Grounded theory is a general research methodology, a way of thinking

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Historical materialism (19TH CENTURY)

Historical theory initiated by Karl Marx (1818-1883). The material circumstances of society, the manner in which its members get a living and the control of their resources for doing so, are the chief influences upon its history. Also see: dialectic, dialectical materialism Source: Jon Elster, An Introduction to Karl Marx (Cambridge, 1986) History and development Origins Karl Marx never

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Human nature

Theory of human individual and social character. There is a ‘natural’ human character as there is a natural shape to a particular plant or a natural form to a particular animal. This human nature is prior to the particularities of any time or place. Also see: dialectic, dialectical materialism Source: David Miller et al., eds, The

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Internal colonialism (20TH CENTURY)

Theory of the distribution of power and advantage within states. Within apparently unified states there is a form of colonialism practised by the center against the periphery, as for example by London and the south-east of England against Scotland and Wales. Economic resources and power are concentrated at the center, to the advantage of which the periphery is subordinated. Culture,

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Law of the small number (20TH CENTURY)

Theory of the German social scientist Max Weber (1864-1920) regarding the influence of small groups in key positions. ‘The ruling minority can quickly reach understanding among its members; it is thus able at any time quickly to initiate that rationally organized action which is necessary to preserve its position of power.’ A concise statement of practical elitism. Source:

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Mass society (20TH CENTURY)

Theory of modern society. Old hierarchies have been replaced by a society in which everyone is an isolated individual. But because social order is unavoidable, it is created by herding people into organizations and movements led despotically from above. Source: David Miller et al., eds, The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought (Oxford, 1987) Concept

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New age (20TH CENTURY)

Semi-ethical, semi-religious theory of cultural renewal. So called ‘new-age theory’ is not a coherent doctrine, but a mixture of cultural, ecological, pantheistic and communalist beliefs which from the 1980s, particularly in North American and Western Europe, were presented as an alternative to ‘consumerist’ values. Also see: communalism Source: Monica Sjooo, New Age and Armageddon (London,

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Piecemeal social engineering (20TH CENTURY)

Theory of proper method of social reform employed by Austrian philosopher Karl Popper (1902-1994). Rather than engage in grand schemes, government should deal with problems as they emerge, and respond to social or economic deficiencies in an ad hoc manner. Piecemeal social engineering was a concept favored by those attracted to the idea of an end of

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Erving Goffman (1922-1982)

Dr. Erving Goffman received his bachelor’s degree from the University of Toronto in his native Canada in 1945. His master’s and doctorate were granted by the University of Chicago in 1949 and 1953, respectively, where he studied both sociology and social anthropology. While working on his doctorate, he spent a year on one of

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